SUSTAINABLE PIGMENT BIOPRODUCTION: SERRATIA MARCESCENS ISOLATED FROM THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT AS A SOURCE OF FOOD-GRADE PRODIGIOSIN
Main Article Content
Abstract
The growing demand for natural, eco-friendly and sustainable colorants has drawn attention to microbial pigments as substitute to chemical-based ones. This study evaluated Serratia marcescens isolated from greywater, as a sustainable source for food-grade prodigiosin production. The bacterium was isolated and characterized based on morphological and biochemical attributes, and its prodigiosin production was assessed under optimized fermentation conditions. Bioactive compositions of the pigment were identified and its safety as food-grade pigment was assessed using the rat model. The findings revealed that the organism yielded optimally in peptone-glycerol medium at 30°C, 150 rpm agitation, and after 72 hours incubation. Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detection (GC-FID) analysis revealed the presence of varying quantities of bioactive compounds in the pigment including methoxy prodigiosin (16.68 %), prodigiosin precursor (56.75 %) and prodigiosin dimer (11.39 %), with the precursor as the predominant component. Safety evaluation of the prodigiosin in rats showed insignificant histopathological changes compared to the severe histological damage observed in rats treated with the synthetic colorant, Tartrazine (E102). Thus, results in this study highlight Serratia marcescens as a promising sustainable source for natural red pigment production, and thus, can serve as safer and eco-friendly substitutes for synthetic colorants in food applications.
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How to Cite
Orji, B. O., Anaukwu, C. G., Orji, C. C., & Osumuo, H. C. (2025). SUSTAINABLE PIGMENT BIOPRODUCTION: SERRATIA MARCESCENS ISOLATED FROM THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT AS A SOURCE OF FOOD-GRADE PRODIGIOSIN. The Bioscientist Journal, 13(2), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.54117/the_bioscientist.v13i2.189
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Cheesbrough, M. (2010). Microbiology tests. In: District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, Part 2. Cheesbrough, M., Eds. The Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop, Egypt. 64- 65.
Cocito, C and Delfini, C. (1994). Simultaneous determination by GC of free and combined fatty acids and sterols in grape musts and yeasts as silanized compounds. Food chemistry, 50(3): 297-305.
Darshan, N., and Manonmani, H.K. (2015). Prodigiosin and its potential applications. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(9):5393–5407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-1740-4
Davami, F., Eghbalpour, F., Nematollahi, L., Barkhordari, F., and Mahboudi, F. (2015). Effects of peptone supplementation in different culture media on growth, metabolic pathway and productivity of CHO DG44 cells; a new insight into amino acid profiles. Iranian Biomedical Journal, 19(4):194–205. https://doi.org/10.7508/ibj.2015.04.002
Elkenawy, N.M., Yassin, A.S., Elhifnawy, H.N. and Amin, M.A. (2017). Optimization of prodigiosin production by Serratia marcescens using crude glycerol and enhancing production using gamma radiation. Biotechnology Reports, 14: 47-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2017.04.001
Espirito-Santo, D., Martins, C., and Henriques, E. (2022). Hepatotoxic effects of synthetic azo dyes in animal models: A systematic review. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 95: 103962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2022.103962
Garrity, G.M. (2005). Bergey’s manual of systematic bacteriology (2nd ed., Vol.2: The proteobacteria). Springer.
Guryanov, I. and Naumenko, E. (2024). Bacterial pigment prodigiosin as multifaceted compound for medical and industrial application. Applied Microbiology, 4(4): 1702-1728. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol4040115
Haddix, P.L., Jones, S., Patel, P., Burnham, S., Knights, K., Powell, J.N., & LaForm, A. (2008). Kinetic Analysis of growth rate, ATP, and pigmentation suggests an energy-spilling function for the pigment prodigiosin of Serratia marcescens. Journal of Bacteriology, 190: https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.00909-08
Han, R., Xiang, R., Li, J. and Wang, F. (2021). High-level production of microbial prodigiosin: A review. Journal of Basic Microbiology, 61(6): 202100101. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/jobm.202100101
Hu, D.X., Withall, D.M., Challis, G.L. and Thomson, R.J. (2016). Structure, chemical synthesis and biosynthesis of prodiginine natural products. National Library of Medicine. 116(14): 7818-7853
Islan, G. A., Rodenak-Kladniew, B., Noacco, N., Duran, N., and Castro, G. R. (2022). Prodigiosin: a promising biomolecule with many potential biomedical applications. Bioengineered, 13(6): 14227–14258. https://doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2022.2084498
Kamasaka, K., Marcello, L., Domingues, L., and Hasunuma, T. (2025). Harnessing glycerol for secondary metabolite biosynthesis in microorganisms. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 41(9):325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-025-04537-x
Kanika, M., Saumya, S., Devendra, P.S. and Meena, K. (2023). Sustainable production of prodigiosin from rice straw derived xylose by using isolated Serratia marcescens (CMS 2): Statistical optimization, characterization, encapsulation. Sustainable Food Technology, 1(6): 837-849
Kim, H.J., Lee, M., Jeong, S.K. and Lee, S.J. (2020). Transcriptomic analysis of the antimicrobial activity of prodigiosin against Cutibacterium acnes. Scientific Reports, 13:17412. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-44612-7
Kimata, S.I.M., Kawasaki, T. and Hayakawa, Y. (2017). Identification of a prodigiosin cyclization gene in the roscophilin producer and production of a new cyclized prodigiosin in a heterologous host. The Journal of antibiotics, 70(2): 196-199
Kumari, U. (2024). Textile dyes and their impact on the natural environment. In: Dye Pollution from Textile Industry. pp.17 – 30. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5341-3_2
Kumokita, R., Yoshida, T., Shiral, T., Kondo, A. and Hasunuma, T. (2023). Aromatic secondary metabolite production from glycerol was enhanced by amino acid addition in Pichia pastoris. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 107: 7391 – 7401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-023-12798-5
Lyu, X., Lyu, Y., Yu, H., Chen, W., Ye, L., & Yang, R. (2022). Biotechnological advances for improving natural pigment production: A state-of-the-art review. Bioresources and Bioprocessing, 9(8): 1 – 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-022-00497-4
Mesa, J.A., Sieraa-Fontalvo, L., Ortegon, K., & Gonzalez-Quiroga, A. (2024). Advancing circular bioeconomy: A critical review and assessment of indicators. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 46: 324 – 342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2024.03.006.
Rahman, M. M., Parvin, R., & Islam, M. S. (2019). Toxicological assessment of natural colorants from microbial sources in experimental animals. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 54(8): 715–724. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2019.1634971
Rakh, R.R., Dani, S.M., Musle, B.B. and Ruct, L.S. (2017). Production by Serratia rubidae. International Journal of Micro and Applied Sciences, 6(1): 145-154.
Shaba, A.M., Oyeleke, S.B., Ijah, U.J.J., Damisa, D., and Ossamulu, I.F. (2016). Enhanced production of prodigiosin from Serratia marcescens UCP 1549 using various environmental conditions. NSUK Journal of Science and Technology, 6(1): 128 – 133.
Singh, R.S., Chauhan, K., and Pandey, A. (2019). Influence of aeration, agitation and process duration on fungal inulinase production from paneer whey in a stirred tank reactor. Bioresource Technology Reports, 8: 100343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2019.100343
Suryawanshi, R. K., Patil, C. D., Borase, H. P., Narkhede, C. P., Stevenson, A., Hallsworth, J. E., and Patil, S. V. (2015). Towards an understanding of bacterial metabolites prodigiosin and violacein and their potential for use in commercial applications. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 99(12): 5391–5408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-6671-2
Suvarna, S.K., Layton, C. and Bancroft, J.D. (2018). Bancroft’s theory and practice of histological techniques. Elsevier 4: 1-15.
Tejada, K.C., Quiñones, C.E., Salirrosas D., Huanes, J.E., Valdivieso, S.C., Cruz, J.A., Haro, D.M. and Rodriguez, J.C. (2024). Production of prodigiosin using Serratia marcescens from Tilapia scale hydrolysates: influence of stirring speed and NaCl concentration. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 108: 37-42. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET24108007
Vijay, D., Baby, B., Alayer, M.S., Vijayan, R. and Akhtar, M.K. (2022). Native production of prodigiosin in the estuarine bacterium, Vibrio gazogenes PBI, and identification of the associated pig genes. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9: 940888. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.940888
Wang, X., Isbrandt, T., Christensen, E.O., Melchiorsen, J., Larsen, T.O., Zhang, S. and Gram, L. (2021). Identification and verification of the prodigiosin biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) in Pseudoalteromonas rubra S4059. Microbiology Spectrum, 9(2): e01171-21. https://doi.org/10.1128/Spectrum.01171-21.
Al-Ghanem, M.M. (2018). Serratia, a novel source of secondary metabolites. Advances in Biotechnology and Microbiology, 11(3): 555814. https://doi.org/10.19080/AIBM.2018.11.555814
Amchova, P., Siska, F. and Ruda-Kucerova, J. (2024). Food safety and health concerns of synthetic food colors: An update. Toxics, 12(7): 466. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070466
Anaukwu, C.G., Anakwenze, V.N., Ekwealor, C.C., Obi, C.G., Onyebuagu, B.I., Ajogwu, T.M.C., Anyaoha, V.I., and Isiaka, A.B. (2024). Optimized prodigiosin production by Serratia marcescens and its antimicrobial effect. The Bioscientist Journal, 12(1): 112 – 126. https://doi.org/10.54117/the_bioscientist.v12i1.170
Bhagwat, A. and Padalia, U. (2020). Optimization of prodigiosin biosynthesis by Serratia marcescens using unconventional bioresources. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, 18(1): 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43141-020-00045-7
Brenner, D.J., Krieg, N.R., Staley, J.T. and Garrity, G.M., (Eds.) (2005). Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, 2nd edition, Vol. 2 (The Proteobacteria), part C. Natural Science, Vol.2: No.6
Chavan, A., Pawar, J., Kakde, U., Venkatachalam, M., Fouillaud, M., Dufosse, L., & Deshmukh, S.K. (2025). Pigments from microorganisms: A sustainable alternative for synthetic food coloring. Fermentation, 11(7): 395. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11070395
Cheesbrough, M. (2010). Microbiology tests. In: District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, Part 2. Cheesbrough, M., Eds. The Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop, Egypt. 64- 65.
Cocito, C and Delfini, C. (1994). Simultaneous determination by GC of free and combined fatty acids and sterols in grape musts and yeasts as silanized compounds. Food chemistry, 50(3): 297-305.
Darshan, N., and Manonmani, H.K. (2015). Prodigiosin and its potential applications. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(9):5393–5407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-1740-4
Davami, F., Eghbalpour, F., Nematollahi, L., Barkhordari, F., and Mahboudi, F. (2015). Effects of peptone supplementation in different culture media on growth, metabolic pathway and productivity of CHO DG44 cells; a new insight into amino acid profiles. Iranian Biomedical Journal, 19(4):194–205. https://doi.org/10.7508/ibj.2015.04.002
Elkenawy, N.M., Yassin, A.S., Elhifnawy, H.N. and Amin, M.A. (2017). Optimization of prodigiosin production by Serratia marcescens using crude glycerol and enhancing production using gamma radiation. Biotechnology Reports, 14: 47-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2017.04.001
Espirito-Santo, D., Martins, C., and Henriques, E. (2022). Hepatotoxic effects of synthetic azo dyes in animal models: A systematic review. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 95: 103962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2022.103962
Garrity, G.M. (2005). Bergey’s manual of systematic bacteriology (2nd ed., Vol.2: The proteobacteria). Springer.
Guryanov, I. and Naumenko, E. (2024). Bacterial pigment prodigiosin as multifaceted compound for medical and industrial application. Applied Microbiology, 4(4): 1702-1728. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol4040115
Haddix, P.L., Jones, S., Patel, P., Burnham, S., Knights, K., Powell, J.N., & LaForm, A. (2008). Kinetic Analysis of growth rate, ATP, and pigmentation suggests an energy-spilling function for the pigment prodigiosin of Serratia marcescens. Journal of Bacteriology, 190: https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.00909-08
Han, R., Xiang, R., Li, J. and Wang, F. (2021). High-level production of microbial prodigiosin: A review. Journal of Basic Microbiology, 61(6): 202100101. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/jobm.202100101
Hu, D.X., Withall, D.M., Challis, G.L. and Thomson, R.J. (2016). Structure, chemical synthesis and biosynthesis of prodiginine natural products. National Library of Medicine. 116(14): 7818-7853
Islan, G. A., Rodenak-Kladniew, B., Noacco, N., Duran, N., and Castro, G. R. (2022). Prodigiosin: a promising biomolecule with many potential biomedical applications. Bioengineered, 13(6): 14227–14258. https://doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2022.2084498
Kamasaka, K., Marcello, L., Domingues, L., and Hasunuma, T. (2025). Harnessing glycerol for secondary metabolite biosynthesis in microorganisms. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 41(9):325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-025-04537-x
Kanika, M., Saumya, S., Devendra, P.S. and Meena, K. (2023). Sustainable production of prodigiosin from rice straw derived xylose by using isolated Serratia marcescens (CMS 2): Statistical optimization, characterization, encapsulation. Sustainable Food Technology, 1(6): 837-849
Kim, H.J., Lee, M., Jeong, S.K. and Lee, S.J. (2020). Transcriptomic analysis of the antimicrobial activity of prodigiosin against Cutibacterium acnes. Scientific Reports, 13:17412. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-44612-7
Kimata, S.I.M., Kawasaki, T. and Hayakawa, Y. (2017). Identification of a prodigiosin cyclization gene in the roscophilin producer and production of a new cyclized prodigiosin in a heterologous host. The Journal of antibiotics, 70(2): 196-199
Kumari, U. (2024). Textile dyes and their impact on the natural environment. In: Dye Pollution from Textile Industry. pp.17 – 30. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5341-3_2
Kumokita, R., Yoshida, T., Shiral, T., Kondo, A. and Hasunuma, T. (2023). Aromatic secondary metabolite production from glycerol was enhanced by amino acid addition in Pichia pastoris. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 107: 7391 – 7401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-023-12798-5
Lyu, X., Lyu, Y., Yu, H., Chen, W., Ye, L., & Yang, R. (2022). Biotechnological advances for improving natural pigment production: A state-of-the-art review. Bioresources and Bioprocessing, 9(8): 1 – 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-022-00497-4
Mesa, J.A., Sieraa-Fontalvo, L., Ortegon, K., & Gonzalez-Quiroga, A. (2024). Advancing circular bioeconomy: A critical review and assessment of indicators. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 46: 324 – 342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2024.03.006.
Rahman, M. M., Parvin, R., & Islam, M. S. (2019). Toxicological assessment of natural colorants from microbial sources in experimental animals. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 54(8): 715–724. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2019.1634971
Rakh, R.R., Dani, S.M., Musle, B.B. and Ruct, L.S. (2017). Production by Serratia rubidae. International Journal of Micro and Applied Sciences, 6(1): 145-154.
Shaba, A.M., Oyeleke, S.B., Ijah, U.J.J., Damisa, D., and Ossamulu, I.F. (2016). Enhanced production of prodigiosin from Serratia marcescens UCP 1549 using various environmental conditions. NSUK Journal of Science and Technology, 6(1): 128 – 133.
Singh, R.S., Chauhan, K., and Pandey, A. (2019). Influence of aeration, agitation and process duration on fungal inulinase production from paneer whey in a stirred tank reactor. Bioresource Technology Reports, 8: 100343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2019.100343
Suryawanshi, R. K., Patil, C. D., Borase, H. P., Narkhede, C. P., Stevenson, A., Hallsworth, J. E., and Patil, S. V. (2015). Towards an understanding of bacterial metabolites prodigiosin and violacein and their potential for use in commercial applications. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 99(12): 5391–5408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-6671-2
Suvarna, S.K., Layton, C. and Bancroft, J.D. (2018). Bancroft’s theory and practice of histological techniques. Elsevier 4: 1-15.
Tejada, K.C., Quiñones, C.E., Salirrosas D., Huanes, J.E., Valdivieso, S.C., Cruz, J.A., Haro, D.M. and Rodriguez, J.C. (2024). Production of prodigiosin using Serratia marcescens from Tilapia scale hydrolysates: influence of stirring speed and NaCl concentration. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 108: 37-42. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET24108007
Vijay, D., Baby, B., Alayer, M.S., Vijayan, R. and Akhtar, M.K. (2022). Native production of prodigiosin in the estuarine bacterium, Vibrio gazogenes PBI, and identification of the associated pig genes. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9: 940888. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.940888
Wang, X., Isbrandt, T., Christensen, E.O., Melchiorsen, J., Larsen, T.O., Zhang, S. and Gram, L. (2021). Identification and verification of the prodigiosin biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) in Pseudoalteromonas rubra S4059. Microbiology Spectrum, 9(2): e01171-21. https://doi.org/10.1128/Spectrum.01171-21.