Ecology and Biting Activity of Simulium Damnosum Complex in Nigeria: A Review
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Abstract
Dipterous insects of Simulium damnosum (Theobald) species complex transmit the parasite, Onchocerca volvulus which causes human onchocerciasis commonly called river blindness. S. damnosum breeds mainly in fast flowing, well-oxygenated water bodies. Its distribution is not even across Nigeria as there is correlation with basic geology. This is because the riverine conditions which create suitable breeding sites for the vector are most common where the African Precambrian basement rock is exposed to break the flow of water and create rapids. Ecological parameters such as water temperature, water pH, dissolved oxygen, ammonia content, rainfall, current velocity, relative humidity and conductivity influence the breeding of S. damnosum complex in Nigeria. Ecological factors which influence the adults include wind, humidity and light. Biting activity is highly seasonal in Nigeria. It ceases for several months in the long dry season of the northern savannas when rivers stop flowing, or are reduced to trickles and resumes only when rivers run again in the rains. On the other hand, where the climate is almost uniform throughout the year and rivers run continuously, biting activity occurs all-year round. Biting occurs outdoors at any daylight hour although each species may have its preferred time.
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Ezugbo-Nwobi , I. K., & Eneanya, C. I. (2013). Ecology and Biting Activity of Simulium Damnosum Complex in Nigeria: A Review . The Bioscientist Journal, 1(1), 39-46. Retrieved from https://bioscientistjournal.com/index.php/The_Bioscientist/article/view/21
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References
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Parasitology 27: 438-458.
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Ibeh, O. O., Nwoke, B. E. B., Adegoke, J. A., Mafuyai, H. B. (2006). Cytospecies identifications of vectors of human onchocerciasis in southeastern Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology 5:18131818.
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Endemic Areas of Imo State, Nigeria. Inter-
world Journal of Science and Technology 3 (3): 1 – 15.
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Manafa O. U. and Isamah A. N. (2002): Local Knowledge and Attitudes about Onchocercisis in Oji River Local Government Journals of Epidemiology and Infection 129: 629 -633.
Nwoke, B. E. B. (1986). Studies on the Field Epidemiology of Human Onchocerciasis in Jos, Plateau Nigeria. Ph. D Thesis, University of Jos, Nigeria. Pp 343.
Nwoke, B. E. B., Shiwaku, K., Takahashi, H. (1991). Nigeria Onchocerciasis; Epidemiology Perspective. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 22(1): 3-10.
Nwoke, B. E. B. and Uwazie, (1991): Studies on Blackflies (Simulium) of Imo State, Nigeria. Okigwe Area. The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 12:29-37.
Ocran, M. H., Davies, J. B. and Agoua, H. (1982). Water Temperatures in S. damnosum breeding rivers of the Onchocerciasis Control Area. Document WHO/VBC/82.848. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Okwa, O. O. (2004). Frequency of Onchocerciasis manifestations and health care utilization by women in a rainforest and savannah foci of Nigeria. Research Communications in
Parasitology 1 (2): 34-42.
Oluwole, A. S., Ekpo, U. F., Mafiana, C. F., Adeofun, C. O. and Idowu, O. A. (2009). Preliminary study on temporal variations in biting activity of Simulium damnosum s.l. in Abeokuta North LGA, Ogun State, Nigeria. Parasites and Vectors 2: Pp 55.
Omolade, O. O., Ojo, O. A. and Ogunrinade, F. A. (2009). Onchocerciasis among women in the rural Guinea savanna ecotype of Nigeria:
Social implications for control. Tropical Medicine and Health 37(4): 135-140.
Onyenwe, E., Ubachukwu, P. O. and Post, R. J. (2007). Simulium sirbanum at a site in South-eastern Nigeria. British Simuliid Group Bulletin 28: 17-21.
Opara, K. N. and Fagbemi, B. O. (2005). Physicochemical indices of breeding sites of Simulium damnosum in the lower cross river basin, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Science 17: 511–517.
Opara, K. N, Usip, L. P., Akpabio, E. E. (2008). Transmission dynamics of Simulium damnosum in rural communities of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases 45:225-230.
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Sutchiffe, J. E., Steer, D. J., and Beardsall, C. (1995): Studies of Host Location Behaviour in the Blackfly, S. Articum (115 – 10.11) (Diptera: Simuliidae). Aspects of Close Range Trap Orientation. Bulletin of Entomological, Research 85: 415 – 424.
Vajime, C. G., Dunbar, R. W. (1975).
Chromosomal identification of eight species of the subgenus Edwardsellum near and including Simulium (Edwardsellum) damnosum Theobald (Diptera: Simuliidae). Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 26: 111-138.
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WHO (2009), Community Directed Interventions for Priority Health Problems in Africa: Results of a Multi-Country Study: Bulletin of World Health Organisation: 509-518.
Yasuoka, J. and Levins, R. (2007). Impact of deforestation and agricultural development on Anopheline ecology and malaria epidemiology. American Journal of Tropical Medicine Hygiene 76:450-460.
Adeleke, M. A., Sam-wobo, S. O., Olatunde, G. O., Akinwale, O. P., Ekpo, U. F. and Mafiana, C. F. (2011). Bioecology of Simulium damnosum Theobald complex along Osun river, southwest Nigeria. Journal of Rural and Tropical Public Health 10: 3943.
Adeleke, M. A. (2010). Bioecology, characterization and transmission indices of Simulium damnosum Theobald complex (Diptera: Simuliidae) along Osun River, Southwestern Nigeria. PhD Thesis University of Agriculture, Abeokuta,
Nigeria: 218.
Adeleke, M. A., Mafiana, C. F., Sam-Wobo, S. O., Olatunde, G. O., Ekpo, U. F. and Akinwale, O. P. (2010). Biting behaviour of Simulium damnosum complex and Onchocerca volvulus infection along Osun River, Southwest Nigeria. Parasites and Vectors 3(93): 1-5.
Adler, P. H., Currie, D. C. and Wood, D. M. (2004). The black flies (Simuliidae) of North America. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp: 941.
Aisen, M. S., Imasuen, A. A., Wagbatsoma, V. A. and Ayinde, B. F. (2004). Preliminary evaluation of the repellent activity of some plant essential oils against Simulium damnosum s.l., the vector of human onchocerciasis. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 24:196–199.
Akogun, O. B. and Onwuluri, C. O. (1991). Hyperendemic onchocerciasis in the Taraba valley of Gongola State (Old Adamawa Province), Nigeria. Annales de Parasitoogie Humaine et Comparee 6(1): 22-26.
Atting, I. A., Braide, E. I., Ejezie, G. C., Opara, K. N. and Udoidung, N. I. (2005). Factors affecting the transmission of human onchocerciasis by Simulium damnosum s.l. in a fringe savanna village in Cross River Sate, Nigeria. Mary Slessor Journal of Medicine 5(2): 59-64.
Bassey, S. A. (1998). Cytological studies and distribution of Simulium damnosum complex in Nigeria, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. Ph.D thesis, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria, Nigeria.
Boakye, D. A. (1993). A pictorial guide to the chromosomal identification of members of the Simulium damnosum Theobald complex in West Africa with particular reference to the Onchocerciasis Control Programme Area. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 4: 223-244.
Boakye, D.A. (1999). Insecticide Resistance in the Simulium damnosum s.l. vectors of Human Onchocerciasis: Distributional,
Cytotaxonomic and Genetic Studies. PostDoctoral Thesis, University of Lieden, Netherlands: 194pp.
Bradbury, W. C. (1974). Behaviour of Adult Simuliidae (Diptera) Vision and Olfaction in Near Orientation and Landing. Canadian Journal of Zoology. (52): 1355 – 1364.
Crosskey, R. W. (1959). Aspects of Blackfly Control and Entomology in the New World in relation to the Simulium problem in Nigeria. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 21: 727-736.
Crosskey, R. W. (1987). A Taxa Summary for the Simulium damnosum complex with special reference to distribution outside the control
Areas of West Africa. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 81: 181-192.
Crosskey, R. W. (1990). The Natural History of Blackflies. British Museum (Natural History), London: John Wiley and Sons. 156pp.
Davies, J. B., Seketel, A., Walsh, J. F., Bano, T. and Sawadogo, R., (1981): Studies on Biting Simulium damnosum s.l. at a breeding site in the Onchocerciasis Control Programme Area During and After an Interruption of Insecticidal Treatment. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 32: 17-24.
Duke, B. O. L. (1981). Geographical Aspects of Onchocerciasis. Annals de la Societe Belge de Medicine Tropicale. 61: 179-186.
Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing (2005). Synthesis. Robert, W., Salvotore, A., Bridgewater, P. and Steiner, A. (Eds.). Island Press, Washington (DC). 25pp.
Grunewald, J. (1976). The hydro-chemical and physical conditions of the environment of some species of the Simulium damnosum complex. Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 27: 438-458.
Grunewald, J. (1981). Hydro-chemical and physical characteristics of the larval sites of the Simulium damnosum complex. In Laird, M. (Ed). Blackflies: the Future for Biological Methods in Integrated Control. Academic Press, London, pp. 227-235.
Ibeh, O. O., Nwoke, B. E. B., Adegoke, J. A., Mafuyai, H. B. (2006). Cytospecies identifications of vectors of human onchocerciasis in southeastern Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology 5:18131818.
Ibeh, O. O., Nwoke, B. E. B. and Adegoke, J. A. (2007). Distribution and ecology of the breeding sites of Simulium damnosum s.l. in south-eastern primary health zone of Nigeria.
Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 28: 32-38.
Ikpeama, C. A., Nwoke, B. E. B., Anosike, J. C., Orji, N. M. and Onyirioha, C. U. (2007). Studies on the Biting Behaviours of Female Similium damnosum Complex in Some
Endemic Areas of Imo State, Nigeria. Inter-
world Journal of Science and Technology 3 (3): 1 – 15.
Kim, K.C. and Merritt, R.W. (1988). Black flies – Ecology, Population Management and Annotated World List. Pennsylvania State University. 528pp.
Mafuyai, H. B., Post, R. J., Vajime, C. G. and Molyneux, D. H. (1996). Cytotaxonomic identifications of the Simulium damnosum complex (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Nigeria. Tropical Medicine and International Health 1: 779-785.
Manafa O. U. and Isamah A. N. (2002): Local Knowledge and Attitudes about Onchocercisis in Oji River Local Government Journals of Epidemiology and Infection 129: 629 -633.
Nwoke, B. E. B. (1986). Studies on the Field Epidemiology of Human Onchocerciasis in Jos, Plateau Nigeria. Ph. D Thesis, University of Jos, Nigeria. Pp 343.
Nwoke, B. E. B., Shiwaku, K., Takahashi, H. (1991). Nigeria Onchocerciasis; Epidemiology Perspective. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 22(1): 3-10.
Nwoke, B. E. B. and Uwazie, (1991): Studies on Blackflies (Simulium) of Imo State, Nigeria. Okigwe Area. The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 12:29-37.
Ocran, M. H., Davies, J. B. and Agoua, H. (1982). Water Temperatures in S. damnosum breeding rivers of the Onchocerciasis Control Area. Document WHO/VBC/82.848. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Okwa, O. O. (2004). Frequency of Onchocerciasis manifestations and health care utilization by women in a rainforest and savannah foci of Nigeria. Research Communications in
Parasitology 1 (2): 34-42.
Oluwole, A. S., Ekpo, U. F., Mafiana, C. F., Adeofun, C. O. and Idowu, O. A. (2009). Preliminary study on temporal variations in biting activity of Simulium damnosum s.l. in Abeokuta North LGA, Ogun State, Nigeria. Parasites and Vectors 2: Pp 55.
Omolade, O. O., Ojo, O. A. and Ogunrinade, F. A. (2009). Onchocerciasis among women in the rural Guinea savanna ecotype of Nigeria:
Social implications for control. Tropical Medicine and Health 37(4): 135-140.
Onyenwe, E., Ubachukwu, P. O. and Post, R. J. (2007). Simulium sirbanum at a site in South-eastern Nigeria. British Simuliid Group Bulletin 28: 17-21.
Opara, K. N. and Fagbemi, B. O. (2005). Physicochemical indices of breeding sites of Simulium damnosum in the lower cross river basin, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Science 17: 511–517.
Opara, K. N, Usip, L. P., Akpabio, E. E. (2008). Transmission dynamics of Simulium damnosum in rural communities of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases 45:225-230.
O'Sullivan, L., Jardine, A., Cook, A. and Weinstein, P (2008). Deforestation, Mosquitoes and Ancient Rome: Lessons for Today. BioScience 58(8):756-760.
Sutchiffe, J. E., Steer, D. J., and Beardsall, C. (1995): Studies of Host Location Behaviour in the Blackfly, S. Articum (115 – 10.11) (Diptera: Simuliidae). Aspects of Close Range Trap Orientation. Bulletin of Entomological, Research 85: 415 – 424.
Vajime, C. G., Dunbar, R. W. (1975).
Chromosomal identification of eight species of the subgenus Edwardsellum near and including Simulium (Edwardsellum) damnosum Theobald (Diptera: Simuliidae). Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 26: 111-138.
WHO (1995). Onchocerciasis and its control. In Report of a WHO Expert Committee on onchocerciasis control. WHO Technical Report Series, No. 852 World Health Organization, Geneva: 6-103.
WHO (2009), Community Directed Interventions for Priority Health Problems in Africa: Results of a Multi-Country Study: Bulletin of World Health Organisation: 509-518.
Yasuoka, J. and Levins, R. (2007). Impact of deforestation and agricultural development on Anopheline ecology and malaria epidemiology. American Journal of Tropical Medicine Hygiene 76:450-460.