Comparative Phytochemical Study of Eight Medicinal Plants Commonly Used For Malaria Treatment in Nigeria
Main Article Content
Abstract
Over the years, humans have relied on traditional medicine to meet their health needs. In the past, researches into medicinal plants led to the isolation of compounds: quinine and artemisinin, still used in modern medicine for malaria treatment. This study therefore investigated the phytochemical constituents of eight medicinal plants (Nauclea latifolia, Dialium guineense, Alstonia boonei, Newbouldia laevis, Dennettia tripetala, Picralima nitida, Combretum molle, and Crateva adansonii) still used in malaria treatment in Nigeria. The phytochemical constituents were determined using qualitative analysis through standard colour-based and precipitation assays, while quantitative contents were determined using gravimetric methods, colorimetric assays and solvent-partitioning techniques as required. Preliminary screening of the plants showed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phenolics and saponins in all the extracts. Dennettia tripetala and Picralima nitida contained all the phytochemicals screened. The quantitative analysis revealed the highest concentration of flavonoids (20.0±0.00 mg/g) in Crativa adansonii, though there was no significant difference (P>0.05) in the mean values for Crativa adansonii, Dennettia tripetalia, Picralima nitida and Combretum mole. The highest concentrations of alkaloids (212.0±1.62 mg/g) and tannins (88.20±0.90 mg/g) were found in Combretum molle. Picralima nitida gave the highest concentration of saponins (32.50±0.33 mg/g) while the phenolic content (35.40±0.20 mg/g) was highest in Dialium guineense. These results justify the therapeutic action of these plants in traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria and suggest their potential as antimalarial agents which could be isolated for the chemotherapy of human malaria.
Article Details
How to Cite
Alozieuwa, U. B. (2026). Comparative Phytochemical Study of Eight Medicinal Plants Commonly Used For Malaria Treatment in Nigeria. The Bioscientist Journal, 14(2), 79-91. https://doi.org/10.54117/the_bioscientist.v14i2.216
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Adamu, I., Majiyebo, A. J., Alozieuwa, U.
B., Lawal, A. A., Odey, B. O., Alawode, R. A. and Berinyuy., B. A. (2022). Ethnopharmacology, chemical constituents, & biological activities of Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss a forest plant with multi-purpose applications. AROC in Natural Products Research, 2(2): 10-15. https://doi.org/10.53858/arocnpr02 021015
Adebayo, J. O. and Krettli, A. U. (2011). Potential antimalarials from Nigerian plants: a review. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 133(2): 289-302.
Adigo Shibeshi, M., Fentahun Enyew, E., Mequanint Adinew, G. and Jemere Aragaw, T. (2021). Antimalarial activity of methanolic extracts and solvent fractions of Combretum molle Leaves in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Journal of Experimental Pharmacology, 69- 89.
Ahmed, F., Maqsood, S., Ahmad, M. F. and Zahir, A. (2025). Optimizing Health and Sustainability: Innovations in Harnessing Phytochemicals for Functional Foods. Food Science & Nutrition, 13(9), e71002.
Alaribe, C. S., Oladipupo, A. R., Nani, M. O., Ijeoma, I. N., Olanipekun, B. D. and Coker, H. A. (2020). Suppressive and curative antiplasmodial properties of Nauclea latifolia root extract and fractions against erythrocytic stage of mice-infective chloroquine- sensitive Plasmodium berghei NK- 65. Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development, 4(1), 1-6.
Alozieuwa, U. B. and Ogbadoyi, E. O. (2025). In Vivo Antimalarial Assessment and Phytochemical Composition of Carica papaya Leaf Extract in Plasmodium Berghei- Infected Mice. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 9, 195-200.
Alozieuwa, U. B., Mann, A., Kabiru, A. Y. and Ogbadoyi, E. O. (2022). In vivo antimalarial efficacy of Psidium guajava leaf crude ex tract & fractions in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. AROC in Natural Products Research, 2(1): 28-37. https://doi.org/10.53858/arocnpr02 012837
Alozieuwa, U. B., Mann, A., Kabiru, A.Y. and Ogbadoyi, E. O. (2018). Antimalarial Activity of the Crude Extract & Fractions of Phyllanthus amarus in Plasmodium berghei- infected mice. European Journal of Medicinal Plants, 24(3):1-11. https://doi.org/10.9734/EJMP/2018/38578
Anaduaka, E. G., Ogugua, V. N., Egba, S. I. and Apeh, V. O. (2013). Investigation of some important phytochemical, nutritional properties and toxicological potentials of ethanol extracts of Newbouldia laevis leaf and stem. African Journal of Biotechnology, 12(40).
Anato, M. and Ketema, T. (2018). Anti- plasmodial activities of Combretum molle (Combretaceae)[Zwoo] seed extract in Swiss albino mice. BMC Research Notes, 11(1), 312.
Anjumole, S. and Sharma, R. (2022). A Review on Phytochemical Constituents and Medicinal Importance of Catharanthus roseus. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 34(45A), 24-29.
AOAC. (1990). Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemistry. 15th edition, INC IIII, North Ninth Street, suite 210 Arlington, VA.
Asres, K., Bucar, F., Knauder, E., Yardley, V., Kendrick, H. and Croft, S. L. (2001). In vitro antiprotozoal activity of extract and compounds from the stem bark of Combretum molle. Phytotherapy Research, 15(7), 613-617.
Besong, E. E., Balogun, M. E., Djobissie, S. F. A., Obu, D. C. and Obimma, J. N. (2016). Medicinal and economic value of Dialium guineense. African Journal of Biomedical Research, 19(3), 163-170.
Chaachouay, N. and Zidane, L. (2024). Plant-Derived Natural Products: A Source for Drug Discovery and Development. Medicines, 3(1), 11. Drugs and Drug Candidates, 3(1), 184-207.
Chang, C. C., Yang, M. H., Wen, H. M. and Chern, J. C. (2002). Estimation of total flavonoid content in propolis by two complementary colorimetric methods. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.38212/2224- 6614.2748
Chen, F., Tang, Q., Ma, H., Bian, K., Seeram, N. P. and Li, D. (2019). Hydrolyzable tannins are iron chelators that inhibit DNA repair enzyme ALKBH2. Chemical research in toxicology, 32(6), 1082- 1086.
Cummings, K. C. (2019). Aspirin: 4,000 years and still learning. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, 86(8), 522- 524. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm. 86a.190 41
de Villiers, K. A. and Egan, T. J. (2021). Heme detoxification in the malaria parasite: A target for antimalarial drug development. Accounts of chemical research, 54(11), 2649- 2659.
Domínguez-Arca, V., Hellweg, T. and Antelo, L. T. (2025). Harnessing thalassochemicals: marine saponins as bioactive agents in nutraceuticals and food technologies. Marine Drugs, 23(6), 227.
Eleazu, C. O., Eleazu, K. C., Awa, E. and Chukwuma, S. C. (2012). Comparative study of the phytochemical composition of the leaves of five Nigerian medicinal plants. Journal of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, 3(2), 42-46.
Evans, W. C. (1989). Trease and Evans’ Pharmacognosy (13th ed.). W.B. Saunders.
Evbuomwan, I. O., Stephen Adeyemi, O. and Oluba, O. M. (2023). Indigenous medicinal plants used in folk medicine for malaria treatment in Kwara State, Nigeria: an ethnobotanical study. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 23(1), 324.
Ganapaty, S., Ramaiah, M., Yasaswini, K., Nuthakki, V. K. and Harikrishnareddy, D. (2013). Quantitative phytochemical estimation and evaluation of hepatoprotective activity of methanolic extract of Dendrobium ovatum (L.) Kraenzl whole plant against CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2(3), 113-118.
Ghasemzadeh, A., Jaafar, H. Z., Bukhori, M. F. M., Rahmat, M. H. and Rahmat, A. (2018). Assessment and comparison of phytochemical constituents and biological activities of bitter bean (Parkia speciosa Hassk.) collected from different locations in Malaysia. Chemistry Central Journal, 12(1), 12.
Gidamo, G. H. (2023). Antioxidant activity and mineral content of Impatiens tinctoria A. Rich (Ensosila) tuber, an Ethiopian medicinal plant. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 14998.
Iloka, O. C., Maduka, C. C., Nweke, C. O. and Sampson, R. N. (2023). Phytochemical composition, acute toxicity, hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of ethanol extract of Allium sativum (garlic) bulb in male Wistar rats. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 20(02), 144–156.
Iseghohi, S. O. (2015). A review of the uses and medicinal properties of Dennettia tripetala (Pepperfruit). Medical Sciences, 3(4), 104-111.
Kulawe, D., Abubakar, A. I. and Abubakar, Z. A. (2019). The activities of the aqueous crude extracts of the leaf, root and bark of Combretum molle against selected test organisms. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 9(10), 9428.
Madaki, F. M., Kabiru, A. Y., Hamzah, R. U., Aina, P. A., & Prince, O. (2020). Antioxidant properties of Hymenocardia acida sterm bark, Crateva adansonii and Pterocarpus erinaceus leaves. International Journal of Applied Biological Research, 11(1): 53- 65.
Mamede, L., Ledoux, A., Jansen, O. and Frédérich, M. (2020). Natural phenolic compounds and derivatives as potential antimalarial agents. Planta medica, 86(09), 585- 618.
Martínez, G., Mijares, M. R. and De Sanctis, J. B. (2019). Effects of flavonoids and its derivatives on immune cell responses. Recent Patents on Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery, 13(2), 84-104.
Mulaw, T., Wubetu, M., Dessie, B., Demeke, G. and Molla, Y. (2019). Evaluation of antimalarial activity of the 80% methanolic stem bark extract of combretum molle against plasmodium berghei in mice. Journal of evidence-based integrative medicine, 24, 2515690X19890866.
Ntie-Kang, F., Onguéné, P. A., Lifongo, L. L., Ndom, J. C., Sippl, W. and Mbaze, L. M. A. (2014). The potential of anti-malarial compounds derived from African medicinal plants, part II: a pharmacological evaluation of non- alkaloids and non- terpenoids. Malaria journal, 13(1), 81.
Okom, S. U., Okpoghono, J. and Onyesom, I. (2025). In vivo antiplasmodial activity of alkaloids, flavonoids and ethanol extracts from stem and leaves of Phyllanthus amarus. Discover Applied Sciences, 7(4), 280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452- 025-06769-w.
Otuu, C. A., Obiezuel, R. N., Okoye, C. I., Omalu, I. C., Otuu, A. Q., Eke, S. S., ... & Okafor, F. (2020). Antimalarial activity, phytochemical composition and acute toxicity tests of ethanolic stem bark extract of Alstonia boonei De Wild. International Journal of Pathogen Research 5 (4):55–63. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpr/2020/v 5i430144.
Parusnath, M., Naidoo, Y., Singh, M., Rihan, H. and Dewir, Y. H. (2023). Phytochemical composition of Combretum molle (R. Br. ex G. Don.) Engl. & Diels leaf and stem extracts. Plants, 12(8), 1702.
Sathya, V., Bharathidasan, R., Selvi, S. T., Rebeccal, N. S., Ilakkiya, R. and Prabakaran, M. (2013). Quantitative, qualitative phytochemical analysis and in vitro antibacterial activity of Bauhinia tomentosa L. Journal of Natural Product and Plant Resources, 3(2), 31-36.
Shen, L., Luo, H., Fan, L., Tian, X., Tang, A., Wu, X., Dong, K. and Su, Z. (2023). Potential immunoregulatory mechanism of plant saponins: a review. Molecules, 29(1), 113.
Sofowora, A. (1993). Medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa (2nd ed.). Spectrum Books Ltd.
Sun, S., Yu, Y., Jo, Y., Han, J. H., Xue, Y., Cho, M. and Zhuang, S. (2025). Impact of extraction techniques on phytochemical composition and bioactivity of natural product mixtures. Frontiers in pharmacology, 16, 1615338. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025. 1615338
Talla, E. R., Ntchapda, F., Talla, E., Miaffo, D. and Azambou Kemeta, D. R. (2021). Anti-radical properties of the aqueous extract from the trunk bark of Crateva adansonii (Capparaceae) and their role in the inhibition of α-amylases and α- glucosidases activities during carbohydrate digestion. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 10(6), 697–709. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.202 1.1006.077
Tsado, A. N., Bashir, L., Mohammed, S. S., Famous, I. O., Yahaya, A. M., Shu’aibu, M. and Caleb, T. (2015). Phytochemical composition and antimalarial activity of methanol leaf extract of Crateva adansonii in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Biotechnology Journal International, 6(4), 165-173. https://doi.org/10.9734/BBJ/2015/1 6038.
Ujah, I. I., Ugochukwu, J.I. and Alozieuwa, U. B. (2022). Phytochemical & vitamin content of Newbouldia leaf. World Journal of Advanced Research & Reviews, 15(01), 31-40. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2022 .15.1.0516
Uzor, P. F. (2020). Alkaloids from plants with antimalarial activity: A review of recent studies. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 8749083.
Vaou, N., Voidarou, C., Rozos, G., Saldari, C., Stavropoulou, E., Vrioni, G., & Tsakris, A. (2025). Unraveling nature’s pharmacy: Transforming medicinal plants into modern therapeutic agents. Pharmaceutics, 17(6), 754. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceut ics17060754
Vodounon, C. A. and Legba, B. B. (2019). Ethnopharmacological and pharmaco-toxicological data of Sarcocephalus latifolius and Crateva adansonii DC, two plants used in traditional malaria treatment in Benin. International Journal of Biosciences, 14(4), 135-147.
World Health Organization. (2014). WHO traditional medicine strategy 2014– 2023. https://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_ files/EB152/B152_37-en.pdf. Accessed 20 October 2025.
World Health Organization. (2023, August). Traditional medicine has a long history of contributing to conventional medicine and continues to hold promise. https://www.who.int/news- room/feature- stories/detail/traditional-medicine- has-a-long-history-of-contributing- to-conventional-medicine-and-continues-to-hold-promise. Accessed 20 October 2025.
World Health Organization. (2024). World Malaria Report 2024: Addressing inequity in the global malaria response (ISBN 978-92-4-010444- 0). Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved December 11, 2024, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/ item/9789240104440. 5 November 2025.
Xiong, B., Wang, H., Song, Y. X., Lan, W. Y., Li, J. and Wang, F. (2025). Natural saponins and macrophage polarization: Mechanistic insights and therapeutic perspectives in disease management. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 16, 1584035.
Zahra, M., Abrahamse, H. and George, B. P. (2024). Flavonoids: antioxidant powerhouses and their role in nanomedicine. Antioxidants, 13(8), 922.
Zhou, B. and Yue, J. M. (2022). Natural products are the treasure pool for antimalarial agents. National Science Review, 9(11), nwac112.
B., Lawal, A. A., Odey, B. O., Alawode, R. A. and Berinyuy., B. A. (2022). Ethnopharmacology, chemical constituents, & biological activities of Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss a forest plant with multi-purpose applications. AROC in Natural Products Research, 2(2): 10-15. https://doi.org/10.53858/arocnpr02 021015
Adebayo, J. O. and Krettli, A. U. (2011). Potential antimalarials from Nigerian plants: a review. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 133(2): 289-302.
Adigo Shibeshi, M., Fentahun Enyew, E., Mequanint Adinew, G. and Jemere Aragaw, T. (2021). Antimalarial activity of methanolic extracts and solvent fractions of Combretum molle Leaves in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Journal of Experimental Pharmacology, 69- 89.
Ahmed, F., Maqsood, S., Ahmad, M. F. and Zahir, A. (2025). Optimizing Health and Sustainability: Innovations in Harnessing Phytochemicals for Functional Foods. Food Science & Nutrition, 13(9), e71002.
Alaribe, C. S., Oladipupo, A. R., Nani, M. O., Ijeoma, I. N., Olanipekun, B. D. and Coker, H. A. (2020). Suppressive and curative antiplasmodial properties of Nauclea latifolia root extract and fractions against erythrocytic stage of mice-infective chloroquine- sensitive Plasmodium berghei NK- 65. Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development, 4(1), 1-6.
Alozieuwa, U. B. and Ogbadoyi, E. O. (2025). In Vivo Antimalarial Assessment and Phytochemical Composition of Carica papaya Leaf Extract in Plasmodium Berghei- Infected Mice. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 9, 195-200.
Alozieuwa, U. B., Mann, A., Kabiru, A. Y. and Ogbadoyi, E. O. (2022). In vivo antimalarial efficacy of Psidium guajava leaf crude ex tract & fractions in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. AROC in Natural Products Research, 2(1): 28-37. https://doi.org/10.53858/arocnpr02 012837
Alozieuwa, U. B., Mann, A., Kabiru, A.Y. and Ogbadoyi, E. O. (2018). Antimalarial Activity of the Crude Extract & Fractions of Phyllanthus amarus in Plasmodium berghei- infected mice. European Journal of Medicinal Plants, 24(3):1-11. https://doi.org/10.9734/EJMP/2018/38578
Anaduaka, E. G., Ogugua, V. N., Egba, S. I. and Apeh, V. O. (2013). Investigation of some important phytochemical, nutritional properties and toxicological potentials of ethanol extracts of Newbouldia laevis leaf and stem. African Journal of Biotechnology, 12(40).
Anato, M. and Ketema, T. (2018). Anti- plasmodial activities of Combretum molle (Combretaceae)[Zwoo] seed extract in Swiss albino mice. BMC Research Notes, 11(1), 312.
Anjumole, S. and Sharma, R. (2022). A Review on Phytochemical Constituents and Medicinal Importance of Catharanthus roseus. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 34(45A), 24-29.
AOAC. (1990). Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemistry. 15th edition, INC IIII, North Ninth Street, suite 210 Arlington, VA.
Asres, K., Bucar, F., Knauder, E., Yardley, V., Kendrick, H. and Croft, S. L. (2001). In vitro antiprotozoal activity of extract and compounds from the stem bark of Combretum molle. Phytotherapy Research, 15(7), 613-617.
Besong, E. E., Balogun, M. E., Djobissie, S. F. A., Obu, D. C. and Obimma, J. N. (2016). Medicinal and economic value of Dialium guineense. African Journal of Biomedical Research, 19(3), 163-170.
Chaachouay, N. and Zidane, L. (2024). Plant-Derived Natural Products: A Source for Drug Discovery and Development. Medicines, 3(1), 11. Drugs and Drug Candidates, 3(1), 184-207.
Chang, C. C., Yang, M. H., Wen, H. M. and Chern, J. C. (2002). Estimation of total flavonoid content in propolis by two complementary colorimetric methods. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.38212/2224- 6614.2748
Chen, F., Tang, Q., Ma, H., Bian, K., Seeram, N. P. and Li, D. (2019). Hydrolyzable tannins are iron chelators that inhibit DNA repair enzyme ALKBH2. Chemical research in toxicology, 32(6), 1082- 1086.
Cummings, K. C. (2019). Aspirin: 4,000 years and still learning. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, 86(8), 522- 524. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm. 86a.190 41
de Villiers, K. A. and Egan, T. J. (2021). Heme detoxification in the malaria parasite: A target for antimalarial drug development. Accounts of chemical research, 54(11), 2649- 2659.
Domínguez-Arca, V., Hellweg, T. and Antelo, L. T. (2025). Harnessing thalassochemicals: marine saponins as bioactive agents in nutraceuticals and food technologies. Marine Drugs, 23(6), 227.
Eleazu, C. O., Eleazu, K. C., Awa, E. and Chukwuma, S. C. (2012). Comparative study of the phytochemical composition of the leaves of five Nigerian medicinal plants. Journal of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, 3(2), 42-46.
Evans, W. C. (1989). Trease and Evans’ Pharmacognosy (13th ed.). W.B. Saunders.
Evbuomwan, I. O., Stephen Adeyemi, O. and Oluba, O. M. (2023). Indigenous medicinal plants used in folk medicine for malaria treatment in Kwara State, Nigeria: an ethnobotanical study. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 23(1), 324.
Ganapaty, S., Ramaiah, M., Yasaswini, K., Nuthakki, V. K. and Harikrishnareddy, D. (2013). Quantitative phytochemical estimation and evaluation of hepatoprotective activity of methanolic extract of Dendrobium ovatum (L.) Kraenzl whole plant against CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2(3), 113-118.
Ghasemzadeh, A., Jaafar, H. Z., Bukhori, M. F. M., Rahmat, M. H. and Rahmat, A. (2018). Assessment and comparison of phytochemical constituents and biological activities of bitter bean (Parkia speciosa Hassk.) collected from different locations in Malaysia. Chemistry Central Journal, 12(1), 12.
Gidamo, G. H. (2023). Antioxidant activity and mineral content of Impatiens tinctoria A. Rich (Ensosila) tuber, an Ethiopian medicinal plant. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 14998.
Iloka, O. C., Maduka, C. C., Nweke, C. O. and Sampson, R. N. (2023). Phytochemical composition, acute toxicity, hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of ethanol extract of Allium sativum (garlic) bulb in male Wistar rats. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 20(02), 144–156.
Iseghohi, S. O. (2015). A review of the uses and medicinal properties of Dennettia tripetala (Pepperfruit). Medical Sciences, 3(4), 104-111.
Kulawe, D., Abubakar, A. I. and Abubakar, Z. A. (2019). The activities of the aqueous crude extracts of the leaf, root and bark of Combretum molle against selected test organisms. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 9(10), 9428.
Madaki, F. M., Kabiru, A. Y., Hamzah, R. U., Aina, P. A., & Prince, O. (2020). Antioxidant properties of Hymenocardia acida sterm bark, Crateva adansonii and Pterocarpus erinaceus leaves. International Journal of Applied Biological Research, 11(1): 53- 65.
Mamede, L., Ledoux, A., Jansen, O. and Frédérich, M. (2020). Natural phenolic compounds and derivatives as potential antimalarial agents. Planta medica, 86(09), 585- 618.
Martínez, G., Mijares, M. R. and De Sanctis, J. B. (2019). Effects of flavonoids and its derivatives on immune cell responses. Recent Patents on Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery, 13(2), 84-104.
Mulaw, T., Wubetu, M., Dessie, B., Demeke, G. and Molla, Y. (2019). Evaluation of antimalarial activity of the 80% methanolic stem bark extract of combretum molle against plasmodium berghei in mice. Journal of evidence-based integrative medicine, 24, 2515690X19890866.
Ntie-Kang, F., Onguéné, P. A., Lifongo, L. L., Ndom, J. C., Sippl, W. and Mbaze, L. M. A. (2014). The potential of anti-malarial compounds derived from African medicinal plants, part II: a pharmacological evaluation of non- alkaloids and non- terpenoids. Malaria journal, 13(1), 81.
Okom, S. U., Okpoghono, J. and Onyesom, I. (2025). In vivo antiplasmodial activity of alkaloids, flavonoids and ethanol extracts from stem and leaves of Phyllanthus amarus. Discover Applied Sciences, 7(4), 280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452- 025-06769-w.
Otuu, C. A., Obiezuel, R. N., Okoye, C. I., Omalu, I. C., Otuu, A. Q., Eke, S. S., ... & Okafor, F. (2020). Antimalarial activity, phytochemical composition and acute toxicity tests of ethanolic stem bark extract of Alstonia boonei De Wild. International Journal of Pathogen Research 5 (4):55–63. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpr/2020/v 5i430144.
Parusnath, M., Naidoo, Y., Singh, M., Rihan, H. and Dewir, Y. H. (2023). Phytochemical composition of Combretum molle (R. Br. ex G. Don.) Engl. & Diels leaf and stem extracts. Plants, 12(8), 1702.
Sathya, V., Bharathidasan, R., Selvi, S. T., Rebeccal, N. S., Ilakkiya, R. and Prabakaran, M. (2013). Quantitative, qualitative phytochemical analysis and in vitro antibacterial activity of Bauhinia tomentosa L. Journal of Natural Product and Plant Resources, 3(2), 31-36.
Shen, L., Luo, H., Fan, L., Tian, X., Tang, A., Wu, X., Dong, K. and Su, Z. (2023). Potential immunoregulatory mechanism of plant saponins: a review. Molecules, 29(1), 113.
Sofowora, A. (1993). Medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa (2nd ed.). Spectrum Books Ltd.
Sun, S., Yu, Y., Jo, Y., Han, J. H., Xue, Y., Cho, M. and Zhuang, S. (2025). Impact of extraction techniques on phytochemical composition and bioactivity of natural product mixtures. Frontiers in pharmacology, 16, 1615338. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025. 1615338
Talla, E. R., Ntchapda, F., Talla, E., Miaffo, D. and Azambou Kemeta, D. R. (2021). Anti-radical properties of the aqueous extract from the trunk bark of Crateva adansonii (Capparaceae) and their role in the inhibition of α-amylases and α- glucosidases activities during carbohydrate digestion. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 10(6), 697–709. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.202 1.1006.077
Tsado, A. N., Bashir, L., Mohammed, S. S., Famous, I. O., Yahaya, A. M., Shu’aibu, M. and Caleb, T. (2015). Phytochemical composition and antimalarial activity of methanol leaf extract of Crateva adansonii in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Biotechnology Journal International, 6(4), 165-173. https://doi.org/10.9734/BBJ/2015/1 6038.
Ujah, I. I., Ugochukwu, J.I. and Alozieuwa, U. B. (2022). Phytochemical & vitamin content of Newbouldia leaf. World Journal of Advanced Research & Reviews, 15(01), 31-40. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2022 .15.1.0516
Uzor, P. F. (2020). Alkaloids from plants with antimalarial activity: A review of recent studies. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 8749083.
Vaou, N., Voidarou, C., Rozos, G., Saldari, C., Stavropoulou, E., Vrioni, G., & Tsakris, A. (2025). Unraveling nature’s pharmacy: Transforming medicinal plants into modern therapeutic agents. Pharmaceutics, 17(6), 754. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceut ics17060754
Vodounon, C. A. and Legba, B. B. (2019). Ethnopharmacological and pharmaco-toxicological data of Sarcocephalus latifolius and Crateva adansonii DC, two plants used in traditional malaria treatment in Benin. International Journal of Biosciences, 14(4), 135-147.
World Health Organization. (2014). WHO traditional medicine strategy 2014– 2023. https://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_ files/EB152/B152_37-en.pdf. Accessed 20 October 2025.
World Health Organization. (2023, August). Traditional medicine has a long history of contributing to conventional medicine and continues to hold promise. https://www.who.int/news- room/feature- stories/detail/traditional-medicine- has-a-long-history-of-contributing- to-conventional-medicine-and-continues-to-hold-promise. Accessed 20 October 2025.
World Health Organization. (2024). World Malaria Report 2024: Addressing inequity in the global malaria response (ISBN 978-92-4-010444- 0). Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved December 11, 2024, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/ item/9789240104440. 5 November 2025.
Xiong, B., Wang, H., Song, Y. X., Lan, W. Y., Li, J. and Wang, F. (2025). Natural saponins and macrophage polarization: Mechanistic insights and therapeutic perspectives in disease management. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 16, 1584035.
Zahra, M., Abrahamse, H. and George, B. P. (2024). Flavonoids: antioxidant powerhouses and their role in nanomedicine. Antioxidants, 13(8), 922.
Zhou, B. and Yue, J. M. (2022). Natural products are the treasure pool for antimalarial agents. National Science Review, 9(11), nwac112.