Co-Infection of Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV among Women of Reproductive Age in Awka South LGA, Anambra State, Nigeria.
Main Article Content
Abstract
The study investigated Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection among women of reproductive age in Awka South Local Government Area, Anambra State, Nigeria. A cross-sectional epidemiological survey design was adopted, recruiting 382 women (230 pregnant and 152 non-pregnant). Participants provided high vaginal swabs and blood samples for TV and HIV testing respectively, alongside demographic information obtained via structured questionnaire. Data were analysed using SPSS version 23.0. Overall, 21 (5.5%) women were HIV positive, 48 (12.6%) were positive for TV, and 11 (2.9%) were positive for both. HIV prevalence was highest in the 21–30 years age group (7.0%), while TV prevalence was highest among women under 20 years (19.7%). Prevalence of HIV and TV coinfection was 2.9% across the communities studied. Both infections were more prevalent in urban communities (8.6%) than rural communities (2.0%). Coinfection was highest among women with primary education (6.4%). HIV prevalence differed significantly by religious group (p = 0.035), and TV prevalence was significantly associated with marital status (p = 0.010). Differences by trimester and gravidity were not significant (p > 0.05). The study recommends intensified sexual health education and improved socioeconomic conditions to reduce HIV and TV burden among women of reproductive age in the study area.
Article Details
How to Cite
Nweke, C. C., Iwueze, M. O., Oruobi, P. N., Chibuoke, P. O., Obidigwe, J. U., & Chidozie, G. N. (2026). Co-Infection of Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV among Women of Reproductive Age in Awka South LGA, Anambra State, Nigeria. The Bioscientist Journal, 14(2), 64-78. https://doi.org/10.54117/the_bioscientist.v14i2.218
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Articles
References
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Ahmed, N. H. (2021). Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis among patients attending Umaru Sanda Ndayako General Hospital Bida, Niger State, Nigeria. Infectious Diseases, 12:33- 41
Ajani, T.A., Elikwu, C.J., Fayemiwo, S.A., Nwadike, V., Tayo, B., Anaedobe, C.G., Shonekan, O., Okangba, C.C. Akanji, A.M., Omeonu, A., Faluyi, B., Asini, A.O., Ajayi, E.V., Adyoola, O.O., Atalabi, F.B and Nwanane, E.B. (2022). Trichomonas vaginalis infection among asymptomatic undergraduate students of a private university in Ogun State, Nigeria. Annals of Ibadan Postgraduates Medicine, 20(2):135-142.
Akinbo, F.O., Cynthia, N.M. and Adedapo, B.A. (2017). Prevalence of trichomoniasis among pregnant women in Benin City. Sahelian Medical Journal, 20(2):67- 71.
Akoolo, L., Rocha, S. C. and Parveen, N. (2022). Protozoan co-infections and parasite influence on the efficacy of vaccines against bacterial and viral pathogens. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 1020029.
Al-Ataby, F. H and Radhi, L. Y. (2025). Trichomonas Vaginalis: Its Morphology, Taxonomy and Transmission Mode: A Descriptive Review. Journal of Science in Volume, 3(4):23-31.
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Awofala, A. A. and Ogundele, O. E. (2018). HIV Epidemiology in Nigeria. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 25:697–703.
Bassey, G. B., Clarke, A. I., Elhelu, O. K. and Lee, C. M. (2022). Trichomoniasis, a new look at a common but neglected STI in African descendant population in the United States and the Black Diaspora. A review of its incidence, research prioritization, and the resulting health disparities. Journal of the National Medical Association, 114(1):78-89.
Boaheng, I. and Jnr, E. A. D. (2020). Essays in the Old Testament & African Life and Thought. Accra–Ghana Noyam Publishers, 84:15-22.
Bowden, F.J. and Garnett, G.P. (2000). Trichomonas vaginalis epidemiology: parameterizing and analyzing a model of treatment interventions. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 76(4):248-256.
Chaudry, A.E., Chaudhri, R., Kayani, A., Hayes, L.W., Bristow, C.C., Javaid, K., Khan, N., Akhlaque, S., Yasmeen, B. and Klausner, J.D. (2021). Acceptability and feasibility of screening pregnant women for sexually transmitted infections in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 2021 May 19:09564624211007681.
Erube, A.S., Idowu, E.T., Ibekpobaoku, A.N., Ajayi, M.B., Gogwan, P.L. and Aiyedogbon, A.S. (2021). Epidemiology of Trichomonas vaginalis among pregnant women attending ANC in Ipokia LGA, Ogun State, Nigeria. World Journal of Biology, Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 5(2):12-18.
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advancements in the management of HIV/AIDS (Master's thesis, Universidade de Lisboa (Portugal).
Fischer, A. A., Laing, J. E., Stoeckel, J. E. and Townsend, J. W. (1991). Handbook for Family Planning Operations Research Design (2nd ed.). New York: Population Council.
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Ibáñez-Escribano, A. and Nogal-Ruiz, J. J. (2024). The past, Present, and future in the diagnosis of a neglected sexually transmitted infection: Trichomoniasis. Pathogens, 13(2), 126.
Idris, S.D., Udechukwu, C.U., Panda, S.M. and Garba, F.G. (2025). Prevalence of trichomoniasis among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in Bauchi State, Nigeria. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2(3):10-16.
Iwueze, M. O., Ezeanyanwu, L. N., Okafor, F. C., Nwaorgu, O. C. and Ukibe, S. C. (2014). Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among women attending hospitals/health centres in Onitsha community, Onitsha North Local Government Area of Anambra State. The Bioscientist Journal, 2(1): 54-64.
Kissinger, P. (2015). Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. BMC Infectious Diseases, 15, 1-8.
Kissinger, P. J., Gaydos, C. A., Seña, A. C., Scott McClelland, R., Soper, D., Secor, W. E. and Muzny, C. A. (2022). Diagnosis and management of Trichomonas vaginalis: summary of evidence reviewed for the 2021 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 74(Supplement 2), S152-S161.
Madhivanan, P., Bartman, M.T. and Pasutti, L. (2009). Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among young reproductive age women in India: implications for treatment and prevention. Sex Health, 6(4):339-344.
Maughan-Brown, G. R. (2011). Status of the HIV epidemic in key populations in the Middle East and North Africa: knowns and unknowns. The Lancet HIV, 9(7), e506-e516.
Mielczarek, E. and Blaszkowska, J. (2016). Trichomonas vaginalis: pathogenicity and potential role in human reproductive failure. Infection, 44(4), 447-458.
Muzny, C. A. (2018). Why does Trichomonas vaginalis continue to be a “neglected” sexually transmitted infection?. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 67(2), 218-220.
National Agency for the Control of AIDS (NACA). (2020). Nigeria HIV/AIDS Indicator and Impact Survey (NAIIS) Summary Sheet.
Ogoamaka, I. A., Nwachinemere, A. V. and Obeagu, E. I. (2018). Prevalence of Trichomoniasis among Adults in Oru-East L.G.A, Imo State, Nigeria. Medical Public Journals, 9:1-2.
Okerentugba, P.O., Uchendu, S.C. and Okonko, I.O. (2015). Prevalence of HIV among pregnant women in Rumubiakani, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Public Health Research, 5(2): 58-65.
Okonko, I. O., Onwusor, H., Awanye, A. M., Cookey, T. I., Onoh, C. C. and Oseni, S. A. (2020). Prevalence of Some Opportunistic Infections (OIs) and Co-infections among HIV- Infected Persons in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. South Asian Journal of Research in Microbiology, 8(1), 1- 12.
Rigo, G. V., Frank, L. A., Galego, G. B., Santos, A. L. S. D. and Tasca, T. (2022). Novel treatment approaches to combat trichomoniasis, a neglected and sexually transmitted infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis: translational perspectives. Venereology, 1(1), 47-80.
Sichie, D.L., Shuter, J., Bell, D. and Graham, D. (2008). Rates of and Risk Factors for trichomoniasis among pregnant inmates in New York City. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 2008; 25:303-307.
Silver, B. J., Guy, R. J., Kaldor, J. M., Jamil, M. S. and Rumbold, A. R. (2014) Trichomonas vaginalis as a cause of perinatal morbidity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 41(6), 369–376.
Soper, D. (2014). Trichomoniasis under c ontrolled or under control? American Journal of Obste trics and Gyneacology, 190:281-190.
Sushma, B. N. (2020). Microbiological Profile in Women with Symptomatic Vaginal Discharge (Master's thesis, Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences (India)).
UNAIDS, and World Health Organization. (2018). Key populations and HIV— Global guidance 2023. UNAIDS
UNAIDS. (2017). Nigeria: HIV and AIDS Estimates. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS.
Uneke, C., Ugwuoru, C. Ali, E. and Ali, M. (2006). Trichomonas vaginalis infection among pregnant women in South-Eastern Nigeria; The Public Health Significance. The International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 2005; 6:1
Usanga, V.L., Abia-Bassey, P. and Inyang- etoh, S. (2009). Trichomonas vaginalis in Calabar, Cross Rivers state. The internet Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetics, 2009; 14(2):1-7.
Workowski, K. A. (2015). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 61(Suppl_8), S759–S762. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/civ771
World Health Organization. (2005). Laboratory Diagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Infections, Including Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Geneva: WHO Press.
World Health Organization. (2012). Global incidence and prevalence of selected Ncurable sexually transmitted infections – 2008. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/75181
HIV prevalence and trends among pregnant women in Abuja, Nigeria: a five-year analysis. Tropical Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 32(1):82-89.
Ahmed, N. H. (2021). Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis among patients attending Umaru Sanda Ndayako General Hospital Bida, Niger State, Nigeria. Infectious Diseases, 12:33- 41
Ajani, T.A., Elikwu, C.J., Fayemiwo, S.A., Nwadike, V., Tayo, B., Anaedobe, C.G., Shonekan, O., Okangba, C.C. Akanji, A.M., Omeonu, A., Faluyi, B., Asini, A.O., Ajayi, E.V., Adyoola, O.O., Atalabi, F.B and Nwanane, E.B. (2022). Trichomonas vaginalis infection among asymptomatic undergraduate students of a private university in Ogun State, Nigeria. Annals of Ibadan Postgraduates Medicine, 20(2):135-142.
Akinbo, F.O., Cynthia, N.M. and Adedapo, B.A. (2017). Prevalence of trichomoniasis among pregnant women in Benin City. Sahelian Medical Journal, 20(2):67- 71.
Akoolo, L., Rocha, S. C. and Parveen, N. (2022). Protozoan co-infections and parasite influence on the efficacy of vaccines against bacterial and viral pathogens. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 1020029.
Al-Ataby, F. H and Radhi, L. Y. (2025). Trichomonas Vaginalis: Its Morphology, Taxonomy and Transmission Mode: A Descriptive Review. Journal of Science in Volume, 3(4):23-31.
Anambra State Ministry of Health. (2020). Annual HIV testing and treatment
Anyaka, C. Tinuade, O., Jonah, M., Isichei, M., Anyaka, I. and Isichei, C. (2016). HIV prevalence amongst pregnant womenclients attending antenatl clinicsat the Faith Alive Foundation and PMTCT Centre, Jos Plateu State. World Journal of AIDS, 6:59-64.
Avitabile, E., Menotti, L., Croatti, V., Giordani, B., Parolin, C. and Vitali, B. (2024). Protective mechanisms of vaginal lactobacilli against sexually-transmitted viral infections. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(17), 9168.
Awofala, A. A. and Ogundele, O. E. (2018). HIV Epidemiology in Nigeria. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 25:697–703.
Bassey, G. B., Clarke, A. I., Elhelu, O. K. and Lee, C. M. (2022). Trichomoniasis, a new look at a common but neglected STI in African descendant population in the United States and the Black Diaspora. A review of its incidence, research prioritization, and the resulting health disparities. Journal of the National Medical Association, 114(1):78-89.
Boaheng, I. and Jnr, E. A. D. (2020). Essays in the Old Testament & African Life and Thought. Accra–Ghana Noyam Publishers, 84:15-22.
Bowden, F.J. and Garnett, G.P. (2000). Trichomonas vaginalis epidemiology: parameterizing and analyzing a model of treatment interventions. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 76(4):248-256.
Chaudry, A.E., Chaudhri, R., Kayani, A., Hayes, L.W., Bristow, C.C., Javaid, K., Khan, N., Akhlaque, S., Yasmeen, B. and Klausner, J.D. (2021). Acceptability and feasibility of screening pregnant women for sexually transmitted infections in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 2021 May 19:09564624211007681.
Erube, A.S., Idowu, E.T., Ibekpobaoku, A.N., Ajayi, M.B., Gogwan, P.L. and Aiyedogbon, A.S. (2021). Epidemiology of Trichomonas vaginalis among pregnant women attending ANC in Ipokia LGA, Ogun State, Nigeria. World Journal of Biology, Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 5(2):12-18.
Eze, C.N. and Edwin, Q.O. (2020). Trichomonas vaginalis infection among students of UniPort. Journal of Advanced Research in Food, Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, 7(8):1-8.
Federal Ministry of Health Nigeria. (2016). National HIV Testing Services Policy and Guidelines. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Health.
Felicidade, J. F. (2021). Therapeutic
advancements in the management of HIV/AIDS (Master's thesis, Universidade de Lisboa (Portugal).
Fischer, A. A., Laing, J. E., Stoeckel, J. E. and Townsend, J. W. (1991). Handbook for Family Planning Operations Research Design (2nd ed.). New York: Population Council.
Henriquez, F. L., Mooney, R., Bandel, T., Giammarini, E., Zeroual, M., Fiori, P. L. and Dessì, D. (2021). Paradigms of protist/bacteria symbioses affecting human health: Acanthamoeba species and Trichomonas vaginalis. Frontiers in microbiology, 11, 616213.
Ibáñez-Escribano, A. and Nogal-Ruiz, J. J. (2024). The past, Present, and future in the diagnosis of a neglected sexually transmitted infection: Trichomoniasis. Pathogens, 13(2), 126.
Idris, S.D., Udechukwu, C.U., Panda, S.M. and Garba, F.G. (2025). Prevalence of trichomoniasis among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in Bauchi State, Nigeria. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2(3):10-16.
Iwueze, M. O., Ezeanyanwu, L. N., Okafor, F. C., Nwaorgu, O. C. and Ukibe, S. C. (2014). Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among women attending hospitals/health centres in Onitsha community, Onitsha North Local Government Area of Anambra State. The Bioscientist Journal, 2(1): 54-64.
Kissinger, P. (2015). Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. BMC Infectious Diseases, 15, 1-8.
Kissinger, P. J., Gaydos, C. A., Seña, A. C., Scott McClelland, R., Soper, D., Secor, W. E. and Muzny, C. A. (2022). Diagnosis and management of Trichomonas vaginalis: summary of evidence reviewed for the 2021 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 74(Supplement 2), S152-S161.
Madhivanan, P., Bartman, M.T. and Pasutti, L. (2009). Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among young reproductive age women in India: implications for treatment and prevention. Sex Health, 6(4):339-344.
Maughan-Brown, G. R. (2011). Status of the HIV epidemic in key populations in the Middle East and North Africa: knowns and unknowns. The Lancet HIV, 9(7), e506-e516.
Mielczarek, E. and Blaszkowska, J. (2016). Trichomonas vaginalis: pathogenicity and potential role in human reproductive failure. Infection, 44(4), 447-458.
Muzny, C. A. (2018). Why does Trichomonas vaginalis continue to be a “neglected” sexually transmitted infection?. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 67(2), 218-220.
National Agency for the Control of AIDS (NACA). (2020). Nigeria HIV/AIDS Indicator and Impact Survey (NAIIS) Summary Sheet.
Ogoamaka, I. A., Nwachinemere, A. V. and Obeagu, E. I. (2018). Prevalence of Trichomoniasis among Adults in Oru-East L.G.A, Imo State, Nigeria. Medical Public Journals, 9:1-2.
Okerentugba, P.O., Uchendu, S.C. and Okonko, I.O. (2015). Prevalence of HIV among pregnant women in Rumubiakani, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Public Health Research, 5(2): 58-65.
Okonko, I. O., Onwusor, H., Awanye, A. M., Cookey, T. I., Onoh, C. C. and Oseni, S. A. (2020). Prevalence of Some Opportunistic Infections (OIs) and Co-infections among HIV- Infected Persons in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. South Asian Journal of Research in Microbiology, 8(1), 1- 12.
Rigo, G. V., Frank, L. A., Galego, G. B., Santos, A. L. S. D. and Tasca, T. (2022). Novel treatment approaches to combat trichomoniasis, a neglected and sexually transmitted infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis: translational perspectives. Venereology, 1(1), 47-80.
Sichie, D.L., Shuter, J., Bell, D. and Graham, D. (2008). Rates of and Risk Factors for trichomoniasis among pregnant inmates in New York City. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 2008; 25:303-307.
Silver, B. J., Guy, R. J., Kaldor, J. M., Jamil, M. S. and Rumbold, A. R. (2014) Trichomonas vaginalis as a cause of perinatal morbidity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 41(6), 369–376.
Soper, D. (2014). Trichomoniasis under c ontrolled or under control? American Journal of Obste trics and Gyneacology, 190:281-190.
Sushma, B. N. (2020). Microbiological Profile in Women with Symptomatic Vaginal Discharge (Master's thesis, Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences (India)).
UNAIDS, and World Health Organization. (2018). Key populations and HIV— Global guidance 2023. UNAIDS
UNAIDS. (2017). Nigeria: HIV and AIDS Estimates. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS.
Uneke, C., Ugwuoru, C. Ali, E. and Ali, M. (2006). Trichomonas vaginalis infection among pregnant women in South-Eastern Nigeria; The Public Health Significance. The International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 2005; 6:1
Usanga, V.L., Abia-Bassey, P. and Inyang- etoh, S. (2009). Trichomonas vaginalis in Calabar, Cross Rivers state. The internet Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetics, 2009; 14(2):1-7.
Workowski, K. A. (2015). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 61(Suppl_8), S759–S762. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/civ771
World Health Organization. (2005). Laboratory Diagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Infections, Including Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Geneva: WHO Press.
World Health Organization. (2012). Global incidence and prevalence of selected Ncurable sexually transmitted infections – 2008. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/75181